Can fathers' leave take-up dismantle gendered parental responsibilities? Evidence from Finland
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-723Keywords:
parental leave, fatherhood, gendered parenting, gender equality, division of labour, surveyAbstract
Objective: This article reports on the associations of fathers' leave take-up with parents' care responsibilities when their child is around four years old.
Background: In families with small children women continue to do more parental care work than men. Several studies, however, have suggested that fathers who take up parental leave also take more responsibility for childcare.
Method: We applied logistic regression analysis to Finnish survey data collected in 2019 from the mothers and fathers of four-year-old children to find out whether father’s take-up and length of leave is related to fathers taking equal or more responsibility for different dimensions of parental responsibilities, including hands-on care, interacting with the child, community responsibility and mental labour.
Results: Our descriptive analysis showed that in families with two working parents, parents shared some hands-on care tasks more equally if the father had taken more than three weeks of leave. When only the father was in paid employment, his take-up of leave was associated with taking the child to or from daycare.
Conclusion: We conclude that while father's individual leave has unfulfilled potential in dismantling gendered parental care responsibilities, its effects might differ across different dimensions of parental responsibilities.
References
Almqvist, A-L. & Duvander, A-Z. (2014). Changes in gender equality? Swedish fathers’ parental leave, division of childcare and housework. Journal of Family Studies, 20(1), 19-27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5172/jfs.2014.20.1.19
Almqvist, A., Sandberg, A., & Dahlgren, L. (2011). Parental leave in Sweden: Motives, experiences and gender equality amongst parents. Fathering, 9(2), 189-206. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3149/fth.0902.189
Attila, H., Pietiläinen, M., Keski-Petäjä, M., Hokka, P., & Nieminen, M. (2019). Gender equality barometer 2017. Ministry of Social Affairs and Health.
Baxter, J. (1992). Power, Attitudes and Time: The Domestic division of labour. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 23(2), 165-182. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.23.2.165
Bianchi, S. M., Milkie, M. A., Sayer, L. C., & Robinson, J. P. (2000) Is anyone doing the housework? Trends in the gender division of household labor. Social Forces, 79(1), 191-228. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2675569
Boye, K. (2008). Happy hour? Studies on well-being and time spent on paid and unpaid work. Swedish Institute for Social Research.
Brandth, B. & Gíslason, I. (2011). Family policies and the best interest of children. In Gíslason, I. & Eydal, G. B. (Eds.), Parental leave, childcare and gender equality in the Nordic countries. Nordisk Ministerrad. DOI: https://doi.org/10.6027/tn2011-562
Bünning, M. (2015). What happens after the ‘daddy months’? Fathers’ involvement in paid work, childcare, and housework after taking parental leave in Germany. European Sociological Review, 31(6), 738-748. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcv072
Coltrane, S. (2000). Research on household labor: Modeling and measuring the social embeddedness of routine family work. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62(4), 1208-1233. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.01208.x
Daminger, A. (2019). The Cognitive dimension of household labor. American Sociological Review, 84(4), 609-633. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122419859007
Doucet, A. (2015). Parental responsibilities: Dilemmas of measurement and gender equality. Journal of Marriage and Family, 77(1), 224-242. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12148
Doucet, A. (2017). The Ethics of care and the radical potential of fathers ‘home alone on leave’: Care as practice, relational ontology, and social justice. In O'Brien, M. & Wall, K. (Eds.), Comparative perspectives on work-life balance and gender equality: Fathers on leave alone (pp. 11-28). Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42970-0_2
Duvander, A-Z. & Jans, A-C. (2009). Consequences of fathers’ parental leave use: Evidence from Sweden. Finnish Yearbook of Population Research, 44: 49-62. DOI: https://doi.org/10.23979/fypr.45044
Duvander, A-Z. & Johansson, M. (2019). Does fathers’ care spill over? Evaluating reforms in the Swedish parental leave program. Feminist Economics, 25(2), 67-89. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2018.1474240
Duvander, A-Z. Haas, L. & Thalberg, S. (2017). Fathers on leave alone in Sweden: Toward more equal parenthood? In O’Brien, M. & Wall, K. (Eds.), Comparative perspectives on work-life balance and gender equality: Fathers on leave alone (pp. 125-145). London: Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42970-0_8
Eerola, P. (2014). Nurturing, breadwinning and upbringing: Paternal responsibilities by Finnish men in early fatherhood. Community, Work & Family, 17(3), 308-324. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2014.933774
Eerola, P. (2015). Responsible fatherhood. A Narrative approach. Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä. https://jyx.jyu.fi/handle/123456789/45600
Eerola, P., Lammi-Taskula, J., O’Brien, M., Hietamäki, J., & Räikkönen. E. (2019). Fathers’ leave take-up in Finland: Motivations and barriers in a complex Nordic leave scheme. SAGE Open, 9(4), 1-14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019885389
Eerola, P., Närvi, J., Terävä, J. & Repo, K. (2021). Negotiating parenting practices: The arguments and justifications of Finnish couples. Families, Relationships and Societies, 10(1), 119–135. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1332/204674320X15898834533942
Everttson, M., Boye. K. & Erman, J. (2018). Fathers on call? A study on the sharing of care work between parents in Sweden. Demographic Research, 39, 33-60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2018.39.2
Eydal, G. B., Gíslason, I. V., Rostgaard, T., Brandth, B., Duvander, A-Z. & Lammi-Taskula, J. (2015). Trends in parental leave in the Nordic countries: Has the forward march of gender equality halted? Community, Work & Family, 18(2), 167-181. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2014.1002754
Fox, B. (2009). When couples become parents: The creation of gender in the transition to parenthood. University of Toronto Press. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442697515 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442697515
Geist, C. (2013). Men's and women's reports about housework. In Treas, J. & Drobnič, S. (Eds.), Dividing the domestic: Men, women, and household work in cross-national perspective. Stanford Scholarship Online.
Grunow, D. & Evertsson, M. (Eds., 2016). Couples’ transitions to parenthood. Analysing gender and work in Europe. Edward Elgar. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781785366000
Haas, L. & Hwang, P. (2008). The impact of taking parental leave on fathers’ participation in childcare and relationships with children: Lessons from Sweden. Community, Work and Family, 11(1), 85-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13668800701785346
Haas, L. & Rostgaard, T. (2011). Fathers’ rights to paid parental leave in the Nordic countries: Consequences for the gendered division of leave. Community, Work and Family, 14(2), 177-195. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2011.571398
Hagqvist, E., Nordenmark, M., Pérez, G., Trujillo Alemán, S. & Gillander Gådin, K. (2017). Parental leave policies and time use for mothers and fathers: a case study of Spain and Sweden. Society, Health & Vulnerability, 8(1), 1-11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/20021518.2017.1374103
Hook, J. L. (2010). Gender inequality in the welfare state: Sex segregation in housework. American Journal of Sociology, 115(5), 1480-1523. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/651384
Hosking, A., Whitehouse, G. & Baxter, J. (2010). Duration of leave and resident fathers’ involvement in infant care in Australia. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(5), 1301-1316. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00766.x
Huerta, M., Adema, W., Baxter, J., Han, W-J., Lausten, M., Lee RH., & Waldfogel, J. (2014). Fathers’ leave and fathers’ involvement: Evidence from four OECD countries. European Journal of Social Security, 16(4), 308-347. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/138826271401600403
Koslowski, A., Duvander, A. & Moss, P. (2019). Parental leave and beyond: recent international developments, current issues and future directions. In Moss, P., Duvander, A. & Koslowski, A. (Eds.), Parental leave and beyond. Recent international developments, current issues and future directions (pp. 353-370). Policy Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781447338772.003.0020
Kotsadam, A. & Finseraas, H. (2011). The state intervenes in the battle of the sexes: Causal effects of paternity leave. Social Science Research, 40(6), 1611-1622. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.06.011
Lamb, M E., Pleck, J.H., Charnov, E.L., & Levine, J.A. (1987). A biosocial perspective on paternal behavior and involvement. In Lancaster, J. B., Altaman, J., Rossi, A. & Sherrod, R. L. (Eds.), Parenting across the lifespan: Biosocial perspectives (pp. 11-42). Academic.
Lammi-Taskula, J. (2007). Parental leave for fathers? Gendered conceptions and practices in families with young children in Finland. Stakes. https://trepo.tuni.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/67759/978-951-44-7122-3.pdf?sequence=1
Lammi-Taskula, J. (2017). Fathers on leave alone in Finland: Negotiations and lived experiences. In O’Brien, M. & Wall, K. (Eds.), Comparative perspectives on work-life balance and gender equality: Fathers on leave alone (pp. 89-106). Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42970-0_6
Lammi-Taskula, J., Salmi, M. & Närvi, J. (2017). Isien perhevapaat [Fathers on family leave]. In Salmi, M. & Närvi, J. (Eds.), Perhevapaat, talouskriisi ja sukupuolten tasa-arvo [Family leave, economic crisis and gender equality]. Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare.
Leira, A. (2002). Working parents and the welfare state: Family change and policy reforms in Scandinavia. Cambridge University Press.
Lidbeck, M. & Bernhardsson, S. (2021). Having it all – perceived coparenting quality and work‐family balance in the context of parental leave. Community, Work & Family, 24(5), 541-558. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2019.1704399
Lynch, K. (2007). Love labour as a distinct and non-commodifiable form of care labour. The Sociological Review 55(3), 550-570. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954X.2007.00714.x
Miettinen, A. & Rotkirch, A. (2012). Yhteistä aikaa etsimässä. Lapsiperheiden ajankäyttö 2000-luvulla [Looking for family time. Families’ time use in the 2000s]. Family Federation of Finland.
Miettinen, A. and Saarikallio-Torp, M. (2020). Isälle kiintiöidyn vanhempainvapaan käyttö ja sen taustatekijät [Trends and socioeconomic determinants of father’s quota use]. Yhteiskuntapolitiikka [Finnish Journal of Social and Public Policy], 85(4), 345-357.
Miettinen, A., Salmi, M., Närvi, J., & Lammi-Taskula, J. (2020). Finland country note. In Koslowski, A., Blum, S., Dobrotić, I., Kaufman, G. & Moss, P. (Eds.), International review of leave policies and research 2020. http://www.leavenetwork.org/lp_and_r_reports/. [retrieved February 15, 2022]
Miettinen, A., Salmi, M., Närvi, J. and Lammi-Taskula, J. (2021). Finland country note. In Koslowski, A., Blum, S., Dobrotić, I., Kaufman, G. and Moss, P. (Eds.), International review of leave policies and research 2021. https://www.leavenetwork.org/annual-review-reports/ [retrieved February 15, 2022]
Miller, T. (2011). Making Sense of Fatherhood. Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511778186
Miller, T. (2017). Making Sense of Parenthood. Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316219270
Nepomnyaschy, L. & Waldfogel, J. (2007). Paternity leave and fathers' involvement with their young children: Evidence from the American ECLS-B. Community, Work and Family, 10(4), 427-453. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13668800701575077
Närvi, J. (2018) Isä hoitaa – vai hoitaako? [Daddy takes care – or does he?]. Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare.
O’Brien M. & Twamley K. (2017). Fathers taking leave alone in the UK – A gift exchange between mother and father? In O'Brien M. & Wall K. (Eds.), Comparative perspectives on work-life balance and gender equality: Fathers on leave alone (pp. 163-181). Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42970-0_10
O'Brien, M. & Wall, K. (Eds., 2017) Comparative perspectives on work-life balance and gender equality: Fathers on leave alone. Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42970-0
Offer, S. 2014. The costs of thinking about work and family: Mental labor, work–family spillover, and gender inequality among parents in dual-earner families. Sociological Forum, 29(4), 916-936. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12126
Pfau-Effinger, B. (2005). Welfare state policies and the development of care arrangements. European Societies, 7(2), 321-347. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14616690500083592
Press, J. E., & Townsley, E. (1998) Wives' and husbands' housework reporting: Gender, class, and social desirability. Gender and Society, 12(2), 188-218. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/089124398012002005
Reimer, T. & Pfau-Effinger, B. (2020). Different types of parental leave use by German fathers and their engagement in childcare in subsequent years. Problemy Polityki Społecznej 48(1), 7-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31971/16401808.48.1.2020.1
Romero-Balsas, P. (2015). Consequences paternity leave on allocation of childcare and domestic tasks. Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas 149, 87-108.
Rose, J., Brady, M., Yerkes, M. A., & Coles, L. (2014). ‘Sometimes they just want to cry for their mum’: Couples' negotiations and rationalisations of gendered divisions in infant care. Journal of Family Studies, 21(1), 38-56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13229400.2015.1010264
Schober, P. (2014). Parental leave and domestic work of mothers and fathers: A longitudinal study of two reforms in West Germany. Journal of Social Policy, 43(2), 351-372. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279413000809
Statistics Finland (2021). Gender equality in Finland 2021. Statistics Finland. https://www.stat.fi/tup/julkaisut/tiedostot/julkaisuluettelo/yyti_gef_202100_2021_23461_net.pdf [retrieved February 15, 2022]
Sulkanen, M., Närvi, J., Kuusiholma, J., Lammi-Taskula, J., Räikkönen, E. & Alasuutari, M. 2020. Varhaiskasvatus- ja lastenhoitoratkaisut neljävuotiaiden lasten perheissä. CHILDCARE-kyselytutkimuksen 2019 perustulokset [Early childhood education and childcare solutions in families with four-year-old children. Basic results of the CHILDCARE survey 2019]. Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare. https://www.julkari.fi/handle/10024/140417 [retrieved February 15, 2022]
Tanaka, S. & Waldfogel, J. (2007). Effects of parental leave and work hours on fathers’ involvement with their babies. Community, Work & Family, 10(4), 409-426. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13668800701575069
Valarino, I. (2017). Fathers on Leave Alone in Switzerland: Agents of Social Change?. In O’Brien, M. & Wall, K. (Eds.), Comparative perspectives on work-life balance and gender equality: Fathers on leave alone (pp. 205-230). Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42970-0_12
Valarino, I. (2019). What do people want? Leave policy preferences in different countries. In Moss, P., Duvander, A. & Koslowski, A. (Eds.), Parental leave and beyond. Recent international developments, current issues and future directions (pp. 167-186). Policy Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.46692/9781447338796.010
Vogler, C. (1998). Money in the household: some underlying issues of power. The Sociological Review, 46(4), 687-713. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-954X.00136
Wall K. & O’Brien M. (2017). Discussion and Conclusions. In O’Brien, M. & Wall, K. (Eds.), Comparative perspectives on work-life balance and gender equality: Fathers on leave alone (pp. 257-266). Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42970-0_14
Walzer, S. (1996). Thinking about the baby. Gender and divisions of infant care. Social Problems, 43(2), 219-234. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.1996.43.2.03x0206x
Ylikännö, M., Pääkkönen, H. & Hakovirta, M. (2015). Time use of Finnish fathers – do institutions matter? In Eydal, G. & Rostgaard, T. (Eds.), Fatherhood in the Nordic welfare states. Comparing care policies and practice (pp. 103-120). Policy Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.46692/9781447310495.005
