Economic hardship and intimate partner violence: An analysis of perpetrators in Germany
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-884Keywords:
physical abuse, perpetration, economic pressure, poverty, family stress modelAbstract
Objective: Based on the family stress model, we examine whether respondents are more likely to perpetrate physical IPV when experiencing economic hardship and pressure.
Background: Research has demonstrated an association of intimate partner violence (IPV) and economic factors. However, as the bulk of studies is limited to the female victim’s perspective, the picture remains incomplete; factors driving gender-specific effects and perpetration rates have thus far been overlooked.
Method: Using data from a large sample of individuals from the German Family Panel pairfam, which covers the period between 2009 and 2019, we employ pooled logistic regression models (n=6,661 individuals with 21,321 observations). Given the rich data source, we are able to control for a number of possible confounding effects. To correct for sample selection, we use calibrated design weights.
Results: Our analyses show that IPV perpetration is associated with poverty and economic pressure among women, but not men. When accounting for confounding factors such as the Big 5 personality traits and childhood experiences, these associations become insignificant. For men, unemployment is linked to IPV perpetration, but only when personality traits and childhood experiences are not accounted for.
Conclusion: Results imply that the association between adverse economic conditions and IPV perpetration is mainly due to unobserved heterogeneity. Thus, physical IPV perpetration is not primarily caused by the distress of financial strain, but rather by underlying factors such as personality traits and adverse childhood experiences, which are associated with both socioeconomic status, economic pressure, and aggressive behavior in intimate relationships.
References
Abramsky, T., Watts, C. H., García-Moreno, C., Devries, K., Kiss, L., Ellsberg, M., Jansen, H. A., & Heise, L. (2011). What factors are associated with recent intimate partner violence? Findings from the WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence. BMC Public Health, 11: 109. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-109
Ahmadabadi, Z., Najman, J. M., Williams, G. M., & Clavarino, A. M. (2020). Income, gender, and forms of intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(23-24): 5500–5525. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517719541
Ames, G. M., Cunradi, C. B., Duke, M., Todd, M., & Chen, M.-J. (2013). Contributions of work stressors, alcohol, and normative beliefs to partner violence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 74(2): 195–204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2013.74.195
Antoni, M., Bela, D., & Vicari, B. (2019). Validating earnings in the German National Educational Panel Study. Determinants of measurement accuracy of survey questions on earnings. Methods, Data, Analyses, 13(1): 59–90.
Archer, J. (2004). Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology, 8(4): 291–322. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.8.4.291
Baúto, R., Carreiro, A., Pereira, M., Guarda, R., & Almeida, I. (2021). Personality and aggressive behavior: The relation between the five-factor and aggression models in a domestic violence suspects sample. Medical Sciences Forum, 5(1): 18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/msf2021005018
Bell, A., & Jones, K. (2015). Explaining Fixed Effects: Random Effects Modeling of Time-Series Cross-Sectional and Panel Data. Political Science Research and Methods, 3(1): 133–153. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2014.7
Benson, M. L., Fox, G. L., DeMaris, A., & van Wyk, J. (2003). Neighborhood disadvantage, individual economic distress and violence against women in intimate relationships. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 19, 207–235. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024930208331
Berkowitz, L. (1989). Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. Psychological Bulletin, 106(1): 59–73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.59
Beyer, K., Wallis, A. B., & Hamberger, L. K. (2015). Neighborhood environment and intimate partner violence: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 16(1): 16–47. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838013515758
Bird, K. (2013). The intergenerational transmission of poverty: An overview. In A. Shepherd & J. Brunt (Eds.): Chronic Poverty (pp. 60–84). Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137316707_4
Björkqvist, K. (1994). Sex differences in physical, verbal, and indirect aggression: A review of recent research. Sex Roles, 30(3-4): 177–188. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01420988
BMFSFJ. (2008). Gewalt gegen Frauen in Paarbeziehungen. www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/service/publikationen/gewalt-gegen-frauen-in-paarbeziehungen-80614
Brand, J. E. (2015). The far-reaching impact of job loss and unemployment. Annual Review of Sociology, 41, 359–375. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071913-043237
Breen, R., Karlson, K. B., & Holm, A. (2013). Total, direct, and indirect effects in logit and probit models. Sociological Methods & Research, 42(2): 164–191. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124113494572
Brüderl, J., Drobnic, S., Hank, K., Neyer, F. J., Walper, S., Alt, P., Bozoyan, C., Finn, C., Frister, R., Garrett, M., Gonzalez Avilés, T., Greischel, H., Gröpler, N., Hajek, K., Herzig, M., Huyer-May, B., Lenke, R., Minkus, L., Peter, T., . . . Wilhelm, B. (2021). The German Family Panel (pairfam): ZA5678 Data file Version 12.0.0. GESIS Data Archive, Cologne.
Brüderl, J., & Ludwig, V. (2015). Fixed-effects panel regression. In H. Best & C. Wolf (Eds.): Sage Handbook of Regression Analysis and Causal Inference (pp. 327–356). Sage. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446288146.n15
Brüderl, J., Schmiedeberg, C., Castiglioni, L., Arránz Becker, O., Buhr, P., Fuß, D., Ludwig, V., Schröder, J., & Schumann, N. (2021). The German Family Panel: Study Design and Cumulated Field Report (Waves 1 to 12): Release 12.0 (pairfam Technical Paper No. 1). Munich.
Cano, A., & Vivian, D. (2001). Life stressors and husband-to-wife violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 6(5): 459–480. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-1789(00)00017-3
Capaldi, D. M., Knoble, N. B., Shortt, J. W., & Kim, H. K. (2012). A systematic review of risk factors for intimate partner violence. Partner Abuse, 3(2): 231–280. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.3.2.231
Carton, H., & Egan, V. (2017). The dark triad and intimate partner violence. Personality and Individual Differences, 105, 84–88. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.09.040
Chester, D. S., & DeWall, C. N. (2018). The roots of intimate partner violence. Current Opinion in Psychology, 19, 55–59. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.04.009
Clark, C. J., Ferguson, G., Shrestha, B., Shrestha, P. N., Oakes, J. M., Gupta, J., McGhee, S., Cheong, Y. F., & Yount, K. M. (2018). Social norms and women's risk of intimate partner violence in Nepal. Social Science & Medicine, 202, 162–169. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.02.017
Collischon, M., & Eberl, A. (2020). Let’s Talk About Fixed Effects: Let’s Talk About All the Good Things and the Bad Things. KZfSS Kölner Zeitschrift Für Soziologie Und Sozialpsychologie, 72(2): 289–299. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11577-020-00699-8
Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., & Martin, M. J. (2010). Socioeconomic status, family processes, and individual development. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3): 685–704. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00725.x
Conger, R. D., Elder, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., Conger, K. J., Simons, R. L., Whitbeck, L. B., Huck, S., & Melby, J. N. (1990). Linking economic hardship to marital quality and instability. Journal of Marriage and Family, 52(3): 643–656. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/352931
Conger, R. D., Rueter, M. A., & Elder, G. H. (1999). Couple resilience to economic pressure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(1): 54–71. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.1.54
Copp, J. E., Giordano, P. C., Manning, W. D., & Longmore, M. A. (2016). Couple-level economic and career concerns and intimate partner violence in young adulthood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 78(3): 744–758. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12282
Costa, B. M., Kaestle, C. E., Walker, A., Curtis, A., Day, A., Toumbourou, J. W., & Miller, P. (2015). Longitudinal predictors of domestic violence perpetration and victimization: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 24: 261–272. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.06.001
Costa, D., Hatzidimitriadou, E., Ioannidi-Kapolou, E., Lindert, J., Soares, J. J. F., Sundin, Ö., Toth, O., & Barros, H. (2016). Male and female physical intimate partner violence and socio-economic position: A cross-sectional international multicentre study in Europe. Public Health, 139: 44–52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2016.05.001
Costa, D., Soares, J., Lindert, J., Hatzidimitriadou, E., Sundin, Ö., Toth, O., Ioannidi-Kapolo, E., & Barros, H. (2015). Intimate partner violence: A study in men and women from six European countries. International Journal of Public Health, 60(4): 467–478. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-015-0663-1
Courtenay, W. H. (2000). Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men's well-being: A theory of gender and health. Social Science & Medicine, 50(10): 1385–1401. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00390-1
Ebert, C., & Steinert, J. I. (2021). Prevalence and risk factors of violence against women and children during COVID-19, Germany. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 99(6): 429–438. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.20.270983
Eckhardt, C. I., Parrott, D. J., & Sprunger, J. G. (2015). Mechanisms of alcohol-facilitated intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 21(8): 939–957. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215589376
Edmonds, A. T., Moe, C. A., Adhia, A., Mooney, S. J., Rivara, F. P., Hill, H. D., & Rowhani-Rahbar, A. (2021). The earned income tax credit and intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 886260521997440. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260521997440
Emery, C. R. (2010). Examining an extension of Johnson’s Hypothesis: Is male perpetrated intimate partner violence more underreported than female violence? Journal of Family Violence, 25(2): 173–181. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-009-9281-0
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2014). Gewalt gegen Frauen: eine EU-weite Erhebung: Ergebnisse auf einen Blick. Amt für Veröffentlichungen.
Falconier, M. K., & Epstein, N. B. (2011). Couples experiencing financial strain: What we know and what we can do. Family Relations, 60(3): 303–317 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00650.x
Foran, H. M., & O'Leary, K. D. (2008). Alcohol and intimate partner violence: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(7): 1222–1234. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2008.05.001
Fox, G. L., Benson, M. L., DeMaris, A., & van Wyk, J. (2002). Economic distress and intimate violence: Testing family stress and resources theories. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(3): 793–807. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00793.x
García-Moreno, C., Zimmerman, C., Morris-Gehring, A., Heise, L., Amin, A., Abrahams, N., Montoya, O., Bhate-Deosthali, P., Kilonzo, N., & Watts, C. (2015). Addressing violence against women: a call to action. The Lancet, 385(9978): 1685–1695. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61830-4
Gelissen, J., & Graaf, P. M. de (2006). Personality, social background, and occupational career success. Social Science Research, 35(3): 702–726. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2005.06.005
Giesselmann, M., & Windzio, M. (2012). Einführung in die Analyse von Paneldaten. In M. Giesselmann & M. Windzio (Eds.): Studienskripten zur Soziologie. Regressionsmodelle zur Analyse von Paneldaten (pp. 17–32). Springer VS. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-531-18695-5_1
Golden, S. D., Perreira, K. M., & Durrance, C. P. (2013). Troubled times, troubled relationships: How economic resources, gender beliefs, and neighborhood disadvantage influence intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(10): 2134–2155. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512471083
Gracia, E., & Merlo, J. (2016). Intimate partner violence against women and the Nordic paradox. Social Science & Medicine, 157: 27–30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.03.040
Hamby, S. L. (2005). Measuring gender differences in partner violence: Implications from research on other forms of violent and socially undesirable behavior. Sex Roles, 52(11-12): 725–742. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-4195-7
Hammett, J. F., Halmos, M. B., Parrott, D. J., & Stappenbeck, C. A. (2022). Covid Stress, socioeconomic deprivation, and intimate partner aggression during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Public Health, 22(1): 1666. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14093-w
Hammett, J. F., Karney, B. R., & Bradbury, T. N. (2021). When Does Verbal Aggression in Relationships Covary With Physical Violence? Psychology of Violence, 11(1): 50–60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000311
Hardesty, J. L., & Ogolsky, B. G. (2020). A socioecological perspective on intimate partner violence research: A decade in review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(1): 454–477. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12652
Heise, L., & Kotsadam, A. (2015). Cross-national and multilevel correlates of partner violence: an analysis of data from population-based surveys. The Lancet Global Health, 3(6): e332-e340. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(15)00013-3
Hines, D. A., & Saudino, K. J. (2008). Personality and intimate partner aggression in dating relationships: The role of the "Big Five". Aggressive Behavior, 34(6): 593–604. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20277
Huinink, J., Brüderl, J., Nauck, B., Walper, S., Castiglioni, L., & Feldhaus, M. (2011). Panel analysis of intimate relationships and family dynamics (pairfam): Conceptual framework and design. Zeitschrift Für Familienforschung | Journal of Family Research, 23: 77–101. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-235
Jewkes, R. (2002). Intimate partner violence: causes and prevention. The Lancet, 359(9315): 1423–1429. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08357-5
Johnson, W. L., Giordano, P. C., Manning, W. D., & Longmore, M. A. (2015). The age-IPV curve: Changes in the perpetration of intimate partner violence during adolescence and young adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(3): 708–726. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0158-z
Jung, H., Herrenkohl, T. I., Skinner, M. L., Lee, J. O., Klika, J. B., & Rousson, A. N. (2019). Gender Differences in Intimate Partner Violence: A Predictive Analysis of IPV by Child Abuse and Domestic Violence Exposure During Early Childhood. Violence Against Women, 25(8): 903–924. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801218796329
Kaighobadi, F., Shackelford, T. K., Popp, D., Moyer, R. M., Bates, V. M., & Liddle, J. R. (2009). Perceived risk of female infidelity moderates the relationship between men’s personality and partner-directed violence. Journal of Research in Personality, 43(6): 1033–1039. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.08.001
Kalmijn, M. (2021). Are national family surveys biased toward the happy family? A multiactor analysis of selective survey nonresponse. Sociological Methods & Research, 004912412098620. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124120986208
Kim, H. K., & Capaldi, D. M. (2004). The association of antisocial behavior and depressive symptoms between partners and risk for aggression in romantic relationships. Journal of Family Psychology, 18(1): 82–96. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.18.1.82
Kimber, M., Adham, S., Gill, S., McTavish, J., & MacMillan, H. L. (2018). The association between child exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) and perpetration of IPV in adulthood - A systematic review. Child Abuse & Neglect, 76: 273–286. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.11.007
Kohler, U., Karlson, K. B., & Holm, A. (2011). Comparing coefficients of nested nonlinear probability models. The Stata Journal: Promoting Communications on Statistics and Stata, 11(3): 420–438. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X1101100306
Korous, K. M., Causadias, J. M., Bradley, R. H., & Luthar, S. S. (2018). Unpacking the link between socioeconomic status and behavior problems: A second-order meta-analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 30(5): 1889–1906. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418001141
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.
Liefbroer, A. C., Poortman, A.-R., & Seltzer, J. A. (2015). Why do intimate partners live apart? Evidence on LAT relationships across Europe. Demographic Research, 32: 251–286. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2015.32.8
Long, J. S. (1997). Regression models for categorical and limited dependent variables. Advanced Quantitative Techniques in the Social Sciences: Vol. 7. Sage.
Lucero, J. L., Lim, S., & Santiago, A. M. (2016). Changes in economic hardship and intimate partner violence: A family stress framework. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 37(3): 395–406. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-016-9488-1
Lundberg, I., Johnson, R., & Stewart, B. M. (2021). What is your estimand? Defining the target quantity connects statistical evidence to theory. American Sociological Review, 86(3): 532–565. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00031224211004187
Metzler, M., Merrick, M. T., Klevens, J., Ports, K. A., & Ford, D. C. (2017). Adverse childhood experiences and life opportunities: Shifting the narrative. Children and Youth Services Review, 72: 141–149. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.10.021
pairfam Group. (2021a). Anchor codebook, Wave 2 (2009/2010): Release 12.0.
pairfam Group. (2021b). Anchor codebook, Wave 5 (2012/2013): Release 12.0.
Reichel, D. (2017). Determinants of intimate partner violence in Europe: The role of socioeconomic status, inequality, and partner behavior. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(12): 1853–1873. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517698951
Riphahn, R. T., & Serfling, O. (2005). Item non-response on income and wealth questions. Empirical Economics, 30(2): 521–538. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-005-0247-7
Rollè, L., Giardina, G., Caldarera, A. M., Gerino, E., & Brustia, P. (2018). When intimate partner violence meets same sex couples: A review of same sex intimate partner violence. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1506. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01506
Schmiedeberg, C., & Bozoyan, C. (2021). Do economic hardship and pressure really influence parenting? European Sociological Review, 37(2): 287–304. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcaa051
Schwab-Reese, L. M., Peek-Asa, C., & Parker, E. (2016). Associations of financial stressors and physical intimate partner violence perpetration. Injury Epidemiology, 3(1): Article 6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40621-016-0069-4
Sijtsema, J. J., Baan, L., & Bogaerts, S. (2014). Associations Between Dysfunctional Personality Traits and Intimate Partner Violence in Perpetrators and Victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(13): 2418–2438. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513520228
Spencer, C., Mallory, A. B., Cafferky, B. M., Kimmes, J. G., Beck, A. R., & Stith, S. M. (2019). Mental health factors and intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Violence, 9(1): 1–17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000156
Spencer, R. A., Livingston, M. D., Woods-Jaeger, B., Rentmeester, S. T., Sroczynski, N., & Komro, K. A. (2020). The impact of temporary assistance for needy families, minimum wage, and Earned Income Tax Credit on Women's well-being and intimate partner violence victimization. Social Science & Medicine, 266: 113355. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113355
StataCorp. (2019). Stata Statistical Software [Computer software]. College Station, TX.
Statistisches Bundesamt. (2021). Armutsgefährdungsschwelle nach Haushalttypen und Bundesländern. https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Soziales/Sozialberichterstattung/Tabellen/liste-armutsgefaehrungs-schwelle.html
Strandh, M., Hammarström, A., Nilsson, K., Nordenmark, M., & Russel, H. (2013). Unemployment, gender and mental health: The role of the gender regime. Sociology of Health & Illness, 35(5): 649–665. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9566.2012.01517.x
Thönnissen, C., Sawatzki, B., Alt, P., Reim, J., Geissler, S., & Walper, S. (2021). pairfam Scales and Instruments Manual, Release 12.0 (LMU Munich: Technical Report).
Thulin, E. J., Heinze, J. E., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2021). Adolescent Adverse Childhood Experiences and Risk of Adult Intimate Partner Violence. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 60(1): 80–86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2020.06.030
Ulloa, E. C., Hammett, J. F., O'Neal, D. N., Lydston, E. E., & Leon Aramburo, L. F. (2016). The Big Five personality traits and intimate partner violence: Findings from a large, nationally representative sample. Violence and Victims, 31(6): 1100–1115. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-15-00055
Viinikainen, J., & Kokko, K. (2012). Personality traits and unemployment: Evidence from longitudinal data. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(6): 1204–1222. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2012.09.001
Viinikainen, J., Kokko, K., Pulkkinen, L., & Pehkonen, J. (2010). Personality and Labour Market Income: Evidence from Longitudinal Data. Labour, 24(2): 201–220. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9914.2010.00477.x
Wetzel, M., Schumann, N., & Schmiedeberg, C. (2021). New weights for the pairfam anchor data (pairfam Technical Paper No. 17).
Whitfield, C. L., Anda, R. F., Dube, S. R., & Felitti, V. J. (2003). Violent Childhood Experiences and the Risk of Intimate Partner Violence in Adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(2): 166–185. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260502238733
World Health Organization. (2012). Intimate Partner Violence (Understanding and addressing violence against women). http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/en/index.html
Yakubovich, A. R., Stöckl, H., Murray, J., Melendez-Torres, G. J., Steinert, J. I., Glavin, C. E. Y., & Humphreys, D. K. (2018). Risk and protective factors for intimate partner violence against women: Systematic review and meta-analyses of prospective-longitudinal studies. American Journal of Public Health, 108(7): e1-e11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304428
