Gender differences in the association between nonstandard work schedules and work-family conflict: A mixed methods analysis in France
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-934Keywords:
24/7 economy, nonstandard work schedules, work-family conflict, family resources, job resources, gender, mixed methodsAbstract
Objective: This study aims to examine the association between nonstandard work schedules and time-based work–family conflict (WFC) among employed parents. Taking a gender perspective, it further considers whether job and family resources mediates this association.
Background: The recent increase in nonstandard work schedules has proportionally affected women more than men in various EU countries. Previous research has established a link between nonstandard work schedules and WFC. However, limited attention has been given to directly investigating time-based WFC and exploring the factors that drive gender-specific effects.
Method: Employing a mixed methods design, we use cross-sectional data from a large-scale French Working Conditions survey and qualitative interviews with couples who work nonstandard schedules.
Results: Quantitative findings demonstrate that nonstandard work schedules increase time-based work–family conflict for women more than men. Early morning and evening work disrupts socially valuable time for women, while weekend work negatively affects both genders. Lack of family support explains a significant portion of the association, with work schedule unpredictability being crucial for women. The qualitative findings shed light on the gender-specific generation of perceptions regarding time-based WFC among couples and the interaction of job and family resources in their daily lives.
Conclusion: The findings suggest that a comprehensive understanding of the gendered interferences between family and work dynamics is vital for informing policy decisions, reducing gender inequalities, and enhancing workers’ wellbeing.
References
Adams, A., & Golsch, K. (2021). Gender-specific patterns and determinants of spillover between work and family: The role of partner support in dual-earner couples. Journal of Family Research, 33(1), 72-98. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-373
Allen, T. D., French, K. A., Dumani, S., & Shockley, K. M. (2020). A cross-national meta-analytic examination of predictors and outcomes associated with work–family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105(6), 539–576. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000442
Ananat, E.O., & Gassman-Pines, A. (2021), Work schedule unpredictability: Daily occurrence and effects on working parents' well-being. Journal of Marriage & Family, 83, 10-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12696
Annink, A., den Dulk, L., & Steijn, B. (2016). Work–family conflict among employees and the self-employed across Europe. Social Indicators Research, 126, 571–593. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-0899-4
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The job demands‐resources model: State of the art. Journal of managerial psychology, 22(3), 309-328. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710733115
Begall, K., Mills, M., & Ganzeboom, H. B. (2015). Non-standard work schedules and childbearing in the Netherlands: A mixed-method couple analysis. Social Forces, 93(3), 957-988. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sou110
Bianchi, S. M., & Milkie, M. A. (2010). Work and family research in the first decade of the 21st century. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 705-725. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00726.x
Blanch, A., & Aluja, A. (2012). Social support (family and supervisor), work-family conflict, and burnout: Sex differences. Human Relations, 65(7), 811–833. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726712440471
Boulin, J.Y., Lesnard, L. (2016). Travail dominical, usages du temps et vie sociale et familiale : Une analyse à partir de l’enquête Emploi du temps. Economie et statistique, 486-487, 149-182. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/estat.2016.10695
Brochard, D., & Letablier, M. T. (2017). Trade union involvement in work–family life balance: Lessons from France. Work, Employment and Society, 31(4), 657-674. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017016680316
Brousse, C. (2015). Travail professionnel, tâches domestiques, temps «libre»: Quelques déterminants sociaux de la vie quotidienne. Economie et statistique, 478-480, 119-154. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/estat.2015.10560
Champagne, C., Pailhé, A., & Solaz, A. (2015). Le temps domestique et parental des hommes et des femmes: Quels facteurs d'évolutions en 25 ans? Economie et statistique, 478-480, 209-242. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/estat.2015.10563
Charmaz, K. (2011). A constructivist grounded theory analysis of losing and regaining a valued self. In: Wertz F.J., Charmaz K., Mcmullen L.J., et al. (eds) Five ways of doing qualitative analysis: phenomenological psychology, grounded theory, discourse analysis, narrative research, and intuitive inquiry (pp.165–204). Guilford.
Chatot, M. (2020). L’articulation travail-famille « au masculin ». Des pères empêchés de paternité ? Les Politiques Sociales, 3‑4(2), 30‑44. https://www.cairn.info/revue-les-politiques-sociales-2020-2-page-30.html [retrieved July 13, 2022]
Clawson, D., & Gerstel, N. (2014). Unequal time: Gender, class, and family in employment schedules. Russell Sage Foundation. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7758/9781610448437 [retrieved October 9, 2023]
Connell, R W. (1995). Masculinities. University of California Press.
Craig, L., & Powell, A. (2011). Nonstandard work schedules, work-family balance and the gendered division of childcare. Work, Employment and Society, 25(2), 274-291. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017011398894
Craig, L., & Brown, J. E. (2014). Weekend work and leisure time with family and friends: Who misses out? Journal of Marriage and Family, 76(4), 710–727. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12127
Davis, K. D., Goodman, W., Pirretti, A. E., & Almeida, D. M. (2008). Nonstandard work schedules, perceived family well‐being, and daily stressors. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70(4), 991‑1003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00541.x
French, K. A., Dumani, S., Allen, T. D., & Shockley, K. M. (2018). A meta-analysis of work–family conflict and social support. Psychological Bulletin, 144(3), 284–314. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000120
Genadek, K. R., & Hill, R. (2017). Parents’ work schedules and time spent with children. Community, Work & Family, 20(5), 523‑542. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2017.1371672
Gerstel, N., & Clawson, D. (2018). Control over time: Employers, workers, and families shaping work schedules. Annual Review of Sociology, 44, 77-97. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073117-041400
Glaser, B. (1992). Emergence vs forcing: Basics of grounded theory. Sociology Press.
Gracia, P., Han, J.-H., & Li, J. (2021). Nonstandard work schedules in 29 European countries, 2005–15: Differences by education, gender, and parental status. Monthly Labor Review, July 2021. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2021.17
Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources of Conflict between Work and Family Roles. Academy of Management Review, 10(1), 76‑88. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1985.4277352
Greubel, J., Arlinghaus, A., Nachreiner, F., & Lombardi, D. A. (2016). Higher risks when working unusual times? A cross-validation of the effects on safety, health, and work-life balance. International archives of occupational and environmental health, 89(8), 1205–1214. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-016-1157-z
Haines, V. Y., Doray-Demers, P., Guerrero, S., & Genin, E. (2020). Nonstandard work schedules, resource shortfalls, and individual/family functioning. International Journal of Stress Management. 27(4), 346–357. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/str0000159
Hammer, L. B., Allen, E., & Grigsby, T. (1997). Work-family conflict in dual-earner couples: Within-individual and crossover effects of work and family. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 185–203. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1996.1557
Han, W.-J. (2020). A first look at parental work schedules and children’s well-being in contemporary China. Community, Work & Family, 23(3), 286-304. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2018.1531826
Han, W.-J. & Wang, J.S.-H. (2022). Changing employment and work schedule patterns over the 30 working years: A sequential cluster analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 19, 13677. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013677
Henly, J. R., Shaefer, H. L., & Waxman, E. (2006). Nonstandard work schedules: Employer- and employee-driven flexibility in retail jobs. Social Service Review, 80(4), 609–634. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/508478
Henly, J. R., & Lambert, S. J. (2014). Unpredictable work timing in retail jobs: Implications for employee work-life outcomes. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 67(3), 986–1016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0019793914537458
Hobfoll, S. E. (2002). Social and psychological resources and adaptation. Review of general psychology, 6(4), 307-324. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.6.4.307 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.6.4.307
Hobfoll, S.E., & Shirom, A. (2000). Conservation of resources theory: Applications to stress and management in the workplace. In R. T. Golembiewski (Eds.), Handbook of Organization Behavior, (pp 57-80), Marcel Dekker.
Hochschild, A. & Machung, A. (1989). The second shift: Working parents and the revolution at home. Genuin book.
Kalil, A., Ziol-Gues, K. M., & Epstein, J. L. (2010). Nonstandard work and marital instability: Evidence from the national longitudinal survey of youth. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 1289-1300. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00765.x
Kalleberg, A. L. (2018). Precarious lives: Job insecurity and well-being in rich democracies. Polity Press.
Kelley, H. H., LeBaron, A. B., Hill, E. J., & Meter, D. (2021). Perceived family and partner support and the work-family interface: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 37(3), 143-155. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5093/jwop2021a15
Kitzmann, M. & Ensellem, C. (2023). Quand les deux parents travaillent : Horaires de travail atypiques et quotidien des familles avec jeunes enfants. CNAF. https://www.caf.fr/sites/default/files/medias/cnaf/Nous_connaitre/Recherche_et_statistiques/Essentiel/Essentiel%20Collection%20_%20Etudes_216.pdf [retrieved September 10, 2023]
Kossek, E. E., Pichler, S., Bodner, T., & Hammer, L. B. (2011). Workplace social support and work–family conflict: A meta-analysis clarifying the influence of general and work–family-specific supervisor and organizational support. Personnel Psychology, 64(2), 289– 313. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2011.01211.x
Lambert, S. J., Henly, J. R., Schoeny, M., & Jarpe, M. (2019). Increasing schedule predictability in hourly jobs: Results from a randomized experiment in a U.S. retail firm. Work and Occupations, 46(2), 176–226. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888418823241
Lambert, A. (2018). Les incidences biographiques du travail mobile. Configurations familiales et rapports de genre. L'Année sociologique, 68, 315-340. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3917/anso.182.0315
Lambert, A. & Langlois, L. (2022). Nonstandard work schedules: Increasing exposure among low-skilled women. Population & Societies, 599, 1-4.
Lapierre, L. M., & Allen, T. D. (2006). Work-supportive family, family-supportive supervision, use of organizational benefits, and problem-focused coping: Implications for work-family conflict and employee well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11(2), 169–181. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.11.2.169
Lareau, A. (2011). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life. Univ of California Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520949904
Laß, I., & Wooden, M. (2022). Weekend work and work–family conflict: Evidence from Australian panel data. Journal of Marriage and Family, 84(1), 250– 272. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12779
Li, J., Ohlbrecht, H., Pollmann-Schult, M., & Habib, F. E. (2020). Parents’ nonstandard work schedules and children’s social and emotional wellbeing: A mixed-methods analysis in Germany. Journal of Family Research, 32(2), 330–356. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-371
Lee, N., Zvonkovic, A. M., & Crawford, D. W. (2014). The Impact of Work–Family Conflict and Facilitation on Women’s Perceptions of Role Balance. Journal of Family Issues, 35(9), 1252–1274. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X13481332
Lefrançois, M., Messing, K., & Saint-Charles, J. (2017). Time control, job execution and information access: Work/family strategies in the context of low-wage work and 24/7 schedules. Community, Work & Family, 20(5), 600-622. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2017.1379950
Lesnard, L. (2008). Off-scheduling within dual-earner couples: an unequal and negative externality for family time. American Journal of Sociology. 114(2), 447–490. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/590648
Li, J., Johnson, S.E., Han, W.-J., Andrews, S., Kendall, G., Strazdins, L. & Dockery, A. (2014). Parents’ nonstandard work schedules and child well-being: A critical review of the literature. J. Prim. Prev., 35, 53-73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-013-0318-z
Lozano, M., Hamplová, D., & Le Bourdais, C. (2016). Nonstandard work schedules, gender, and parental stress. Demographic Research, 34, 259-284. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2016.34.9
Lyonette, C., & Crompton, R. (2015). Sharing the load? Partners’ relative earnings and the division of domestic labour. Work, employment and society, 29(1), 23-40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017014523661
Maublanc, S. (2009). 5. Horaires de travail et investissement des pères. In A. Pailhé & A. Solaz (Eds.), Entre famille et travail: Des arrangements de couple aux pratiques des employeurs (pp. 121-140). La Découverte. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3917/dec.pailh.2009.01.0121
Michel, J.S., Kotrba, L.M., Mitchelson, J.K., Clark, M.A. & Baltes, B.B. (2011). Antecedents of work–family conflict: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32: 689-725. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/job.695
Mills, M. C., & Täht, K. (2010). Nonstandard Work Schedules and Partnership Quality: Quantitative and Qualitative Findings. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 860‑875. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40864950 [retrieved October 9, 2023] DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00735.x
Perry-Jenkins, M., Goldberg, A. E., Pierce, C. P., & Sayer, A. G. (2007). Shift Work, Role Overload, and the Transition to Parenthood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(1), 123‑138. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00349.x
Presser, H. B. (1994). Employment Schedules Among Dual-Earner Spouses and the Division of Household Labor by Gender. American Sociological Review, 59(3), 348. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2095938
Presser, H. B. (2003). Working in a 24/7 Economy: Challenges for American Families. Russell Sage Foundation. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2004-822552
Presser, H. B. (2000). Nonstandard work schedules and marital instability. Journal of Marriage and Family. 62(1), 93–110. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00093.x
Presser, H. B., & Ward, B. W. (2011). Nonstandard work schedules over the life course: a first look. Monthly Lab. Rev., 134, 3-16.
Reimann, M., Schulz, F., Marx, C. K., & Lükemann, L. (2022). The family side of work-family conflict: A literature review of antecedents and consequences. Journal of Family Research, 34(4), 1010-1032. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-859
Reimann, M., & Diewald, M. (2022). Good mental health despite work-family conflict? The within-domain and cross-domain buffering potentials of family and work resources. Journal of Family Research, 34(4), 1126–1159. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-726
Selvarajan, T. T., Cloninger, P. A., & Singh, B. (2013). Social support and work–family conflict: A test of an indirect effects model. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83, 486–499. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.07.004
Shockley, K. M., & Allen, T. D. (2015). Deciding between work and family: An episodic approach. Personnel Psychology, 68(2), 283-318. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12077
Schulz, F., & Reimann, M. (2022). Parents’ experiences of work-family conflict: Does it matter if coworkers have children?. Journal of Family Research, 34(4), 1056–1071. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-780
Steiber, N. (2009). Reported levels of time-based and strain-based conflict between work and family roles in Europe : A multilevel approach. Social Indicators Research, 93(3), 469‑488. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-008-9436-z
Strazdins, L., Clements, M. S., Korda, R. J., & Broom, D. H. (2006). Unsociable work? Nonstandard work schedules, family relationships, and children’s well-being. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68(2), 394–410. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00260.x
Swanberg, J. E., James, J. B., Werner, M., & McKechnie, S. P. (2008). Workplace flexibility for hourly lower-wage employees: A strategic business practice within one national retail firm. The Psychologist-Manager Journal, 11(1), 5–29. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10887150801963836
Täht, K., & Mills, M. (2016). Out of Time: The Consequences of nonstandard Employment Schedules for Family Cohesion. Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-7402-4
Taiji, R., & Mills, M. C. (2020). Nonstandard schedules, work–family conflict, and the moderating role of national labour context: Evidence from 32 European countries. European Sociological Review, 36(2), 179-197. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcz048
Tammelin, M., Malinen, K., Rönkä, A., & Verhoef, M. (2017). Work schedules and work–family conflict among dual earners in Finland, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. Journal of Family Issues, 38(1), 3–24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X15585810
Ten Brummelhuis, L. L., & Bakker, A. B. (2012). A resource perspective on the work–home interface: The work–home resources model. American psychologist, 67(7), 545. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027974
Thévenon, O., Adema, W., & Ali, N. (2014). Les politiques familiales en France et en Europe: Évolutions récentes et effets de la crise. Population et Sociétés, 512(6), 1-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3917/popsoc.512.0001
White, L., & Keith, B. (1990). The effect of shift work on the quality and stability of marital relations. Journal of Marriage and Family, 52(2), 453‑462. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/353039
Wirtz, A., Nachreiner, F., & Rolfes, K. (2011). Working on sundays: Effects on safety, health, and work-life balance. Chronobiology International, 28(4), 361‑370. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/07420528.2011.565896
Zhao, Y., Cooklin, A. R., Richardson, A., Strazdins, L., Butterworth, P., & Leach, L. S. (2021). Parents’shift work in connection with work–family conflict and mental health: Examining the pathways for mothers and fathers. Journal of Family Issues, 42(2), 445–473. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X20929059
Downloads
Additional Files
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Funding data
-
Agence Nationale de la Recherche
Grant numbers grant no. ANR-19-CE26-0013-01).
